The Battle of Palikao: A Decisive Blow in the Second Opium War

On September 21, 1860, the Anglo-French alliance delivered a crushing defeat to Qing Dynasty forces at the Battle of Palikao, a turning point in the Second Opium War that paved the way for the fall of Beijing and the imposition of humiliating terms on China. Fought at the bridge of Baliqiao (Palikao), just east of the imperial capital, the battle showcased the stark military disparity between Western powers and the Qing Empire, and marked the climax of a conflict rooted in trade, sovereignty, and imperial ambition.

Background: The Road to War

The Second Opium War (1856–1860) was born out of unresolved tensions from the First Opium War (1839–1842), which had already forced China to open several ports to British trade and cede Hong Kong. Western powers, particularly Britain and France, sought to expand their privileges in China, including the legalization of the opium trade, diplomatic representation in Beijing, and broader commercial access. The Qing government, wary of foreign encroachment and the social devastation wrought by opium, resisted these demands.

The immediate catalyst for renewed hostilities was the "Arrow Incident" in 1856, when Chinese officials boarded a British-registered ship suspected of piracy. Britain used the incident to justify military action, and France joined the campaign citing the execution of a French missionary. The war escalated over the next four years, culminating in a joint Anglo-French expedition aimed at forcing compliance from the Qing court.

The March to Beijing

By mid-1860, the Anglo-French forces had landed in northern China and captured the strategic Taku Forts near the mouth of the Hai River. From there, they advanced inland toward Tianjin and then Beijing, encountering sporadic resistance. The Qing army, under Prince Sengge Rinchen (also known as Seng-ko-lin-ch'in), attempted to block the road to the capital by assembling a large force near the village of Baliqiao.

The Qing defenders included elite troops from the Banner Army and the Green Standard Army, reinforced by Imperial Guard units. Estimates suggest the Chinese force numbered around 30,000 men, supported by over 100 artillery pieces positioned across villages and along the canal that flanked the bridge. Despite their numbers, the Qing troops were poorly equipped and lacked the training and discipline of their adversaries.

The Battle Unfolds

On the morning of September 21, 1860, the Anglo-French columns, led by British General Sir James Hope Grant and French General Charles Cousin-Montauban, approached the Chinese positions. The terrain was wooded and rolling, with the stone bridge at Baliqiao serving as a critical chokepoint on the road to Beijing.

The battle began with a coordinated artillery barrage from the Allied forces, which quickly silenced the Qing guns. British and French infantry then launched frontal and flanking assaults, including a fierce bayonet charge that broke through Chinese lines. The Qing cavalry attempted to counterattack but was repulsed by disciplined volleys and superior firepower.

Despite Prince Sengge Rinchen's efforts to rally his troops, the Qing formations collapsed under pressure. Many soldiers fled, and the Imperial Guard's defense of the bridge was overwhelmed. Casualties were lopsided: the Allies suffered minimal losses-just five dead and 47 wounded-while the Qing army incurred over 1,200 casualties.

Aftermath and Consequences

The victory at Palikao opened the gates to Beijing. Within days, Anglo-French forces entered the capital, encountering little resistance. In retaliation for the capture and torture of Allied envoys sent under a flag of truce, British and French troops looted and burned the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan), a cultural treasure of the Qing Dynasty.

The war formally ended with the Convention of Peking in October 1860. The treaty forced China to:

• Ratify the Treaty of Tianjin (1858), which had previously been rejected.

• Open additional ports to foreign trade.

• Legalize the opium trade.

• Grant diplomatic rights to foreign envoys in Beijing.

• Cede the Kowloon Peninsula to Britain.

• Pay heavy indemnities to Britain and France.

These terms deepened China's subjugation to foreign powers and marked a low point in Qing sovereignty. The defeat also exposed the empire's military and administrative weaknesses, contributing to internal unrest and the eventual collapse of the dynasty in the early 20th century.

Legacy

The Battle of Palikao stands as a stark illustration of 19th-century imperialism and the clash between traditional empires and industrialized Western powers. It was not merely a military engagement but a symbol of the broader forces reshaping Asia-gunboat diplomacy, commercial exploitation, and the erosion of indigenous authority.

For China, the battle and its aftermath were traumatic. The destruction of the Summer Palace remains a potent symbol of national humiliation, and the unequal treaties signed under duress are remembered as markers of a century of foreign domination.

For Britain and France, the victory reinforced their global influence and secured lucrative trade privileges. Yet it also sowed the seeds of long-term resentment and resistance that would shape China's modern history.